From Catholic Records to Illinois Slave Records

Le vingt deux fevrier mil huit cent treize a ete baptiste George ne de Julie esclave de fem Mv LaChange ont ete parrein Ignace et marrein Marguerite tous deux esclaves de Mde Ve D'Amour

So it says in the records of the Catholic Diocese of Belleville, Illinois, referring to one George Micheau. What does this mean? Keeping in mind that 19th century French is different from 21st century French, I used my self-taught genealogical French as well as my law and altar-boy Latin. Here's my original translation:

On the twenty-second of February, 1813, was baptized George, born of Julie, slave of Mr. LaChance; his Godparents were Ignatius and Margaret, both slaves of Mrs D'Amour.

But a couple of folks, including a reader in France, pointed out that I had missed or misunderstood somethings that turn out to be genealogically significant. For example, Julie's master is described as deceased (see the comments to the first post on this topic). And our Paris correspondent says:

Mde Ve = Mademoiselle veuve, in the Ancient Regime, Mademoiselle was used for the ladies, married or not. Today it is used only for unmarried woman, young or old.

"Veuve" means "widow" in French. So Ignatius and Margaret were owned by

Assuming that the translation is good (and thanks to my helpers, I'm confident that it is), we now perhaps have learned more about George Micheau (the elder) as we seek the origins of the Micheau/Mischeaux family in French Illinois. That we may be dealing with slaves could be a daunting realization for some; enough to throw in the towel for others. How are we going to begin to research slave genealogy?

Fortunately, Illinois has a Database of Servitude and Emancipation Records which covers the period 1722-1863. (Why 1722? That was approximately the year that Pierre Renault, agent for the King of France, arrived in Illinois with slaves purchased in the Caribbean to search for silver and gold). The Servitude and Emancipation Database includes approximately 3,400 names found in governmental records involving the servitude and emancipation of Africans and, occasionally, Indians. The Illinois State Archives extracted the names of servants, slaves, or free persons and masters, witnesses, or related parties from selected governmental records to produce this database. The online version is searchable by names, by counties, or types of documents.

We have several names to work with here: George, Julie, Ignatius, Margaret, LaChance, D'Amour. and we know that the relevant events occurred in Randolph County, Illinois. A search of the database with those variables yields abstracts of a number of interesting documents.

First, there is an estate document dated 27 January 1739 which says in part:

"TO CATHERINE IS GIVEN A NEGRO BOY NAMED IGNACE, ALSO A SON OF
CYBAS AND OF ANGELIQUE, ALSO A DAUGHTER OF LOUISON."

The abstract identifies "Catherine" as Catherine Vinsennes, a fact that we'll keep in mind for later use. We have perhaps identified "Ignace" (Latin/French form of Ignatius), the godfather (if not in fact the grandfather) of George.

Another document is a bill of sale from Louis Marein to Pierre Mulin for a slave named "Margueritte." It's dated 12 June 1740. The abstract notes that:

FEMALE INDIAN SLAVE SOLD FOR 800 LIVRES IN "NOTES OR FLOUR."
MAREIN "ACQUIRED SLAVE FROM MONCHARVAU."

Perhaps we have identified "Margaret," the godmother (if not in fact the grandmother). Note the double-T spelling of "Margueritte." The name "Margarett" with two "t's" occurs quite frequently in the Micheau/Mischeaux family, down to a currently living descendant, who's frequently asked about the spelling. She says that she's always heard it's a longstanding family name.

There are six documents that relate to slaves named "George" in Randolph County. But only one matches the relevant dates for our George. It's an indenture dated 12 August 1813 for a boy named George, described as one year old in one part of the document, but says "Born in Randolph County in April" in another place. His race is stated as "mulatto" which comports with later descriptions of George Micheau and his progeny. This document then may well refer to our George.

What about the discrepancies with respect to age? We know that George Micheau was born earlier than April 1813. It may well be that he was born in February 1813 and that the master did not know that; he being only aware that the child was several months old. There are some other issues raised by this abstract. For one thing, an indenture is usually a two-party agreement. Who was the party representing the interests of George. We no doubt will have to see the document. It's available for $10 from the Illinois State Archives.

Now we need to check the Servitude and Emancipation database for information on the bondholders.

What about the late M. LaChance? The database has a bill of sale dated 2 Jun 1774 from a Marie Franciose Ayet to one Nicolas LaChance. The memo on the abstract notes:

"SHE SELLS 4 NEGROES AND PERSONAL PROPERTY TO NICOLAS LACHANCE . . . FOR 3,705 LIVRES."

A second document in the database abstracts the 1820 census of Illinois--the first census in which Illinois appears as a State of the USA. On that census, there is a "Madame LaChance" in Prairie du Rocher, Randolph County, Illinois. The fact that a woman was enumerated as head of household in 1820 suggests that she was a widow.

We have to go to the 1820 census itself to understand the abstract. The household appears to consist of two white males under the age of ten; and two white males between 10 and 15 years old; a white female between 10 and 15 years old; and Madame LaChance herself, apparently between 26 and 44 years old. Then there appear to be two male slaves under age 14; one male slave between14 and 25 years old; two female slaves under age 14; and one female slave between 14 and 26 years old. There is one male "free colored person" between 26 and 44 years old.

All of this data on the LaChance documents needs analysis; we'll get to that later. For now, let's see what we can find about the widow D'Amour.

Just as in the LaChance case, the Servitude and Emancipation Database has for a Madam "Damore" an abstract from the 1820 census. She was enumerated in Prairie du Rocher, Randolph County, with two female slaves: one under 14 years old, and the other over age 45. Madam Damore herself was listed as being over 45 years old.

The D'Amour evidence also requires analysis before we draw any conclusions.

Remember, we're in search of the origins of the Micheau/Mischeaux family in French Illinois. So stay with us as we next analyze the evidence.

Juneteenth

At the time of this order, my BRYANT family lived in Nueces and Refugio Counties, Texas, and my SANFORD families were both slaves and slaveholders in Milam County, Texas.

Research Tip: Slaves and Slavs in the U.S. Census (and how to tell the difference!)

"No census taken between 1790 and 1860 contains even one slave's name."

Harriet C. Frazier, Runaway and Freed Missouri Slaves and Those Who Helped Them, 1763-1865, (McFarland & Company: 2004), p. 12.

Most genealogists will not find this statement particularly surprising. We all know that, except for a very few free blacks, African-Americans were not enumerated by name in the federal census until 1870. The only problem with this bit of conventional wisdom is that it isn't true!

In fact, a number of slaves are listed by name in several states in several census years. To find them, put the word "slave" in either the first name or the surname search box in your Favorite Commercial On-line Research Website (you know who I mean!).

Searching "slave" as a first name, and leaving the surname box empty, yields several census results. Of course, there are the 1850 and 1860 Slave schedules, but these don't list the slaves by name. Then there are the Mortality Schedules for 1850-1880, but again these don't list the slave's names . There are names on these schedules, but they are the names of slaveholders (although there are several instances where the names of slaves appear--see for example, the 1860 slave schedule for Oglethorpe County, Georgia, Ancestry.com. 1860 U.S. Federal Census - Slave Schedules [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: The Generations Network, Inc., 2004. Original data: United States of America, Bureau of the Census. Eighth Census of the United States, 1860. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1860. M653, 1,438 rolls). Where are there names of slaves? Patience, Grasshopper, patience.

In the 1840 census of Nansemond, Virignia, there is a person described as "Demsey of Stallings (slave)". However, there appear to be at least two "free colored persons" living in this household, so it is not entirely clear that "Demsey of Stallings" really is a slave. I should note that on this census there are several individuals listed thusly "(first name) of _______." They are all "free colored persons."

In the 1820 census of St Mary's County, Maryland, there is a person described as "Slave Backey of Boutte." Examining the document, it appears that there are three or perhaps four individuals in the household and they all appear to be slaves. Even so, I would understand if someone felt that this example seems a bit ambiguous.

So try this: put the word "slave" in the surname box and leave the first name box empty. Now on the 1840 census, there are a number of persons, mainly in Mobile, Alabama, with the apparent surname "Slave." But notice how they all have the same middle initial: "A"! So it's not "Nancy A. Slave;" it's "Nancy, a slave." You can tell this by noticing that there are no marks or numerals in the corresponding columns for "free white people" or "free colored people." The household seems to be enumerated just in the "slaves" columns. Thus there are at least 13 slaves named in the 1840 census of Mobile, Montgomery County, Alabama. And there are several others around the country: "Delilia, a slave," and "James, a slave" are found in Knox County, Tennessee, while "Shedrick, slave" resides in Loudon County, Virginia. "Franky, a slave, owner unknown," was counted in Wake County, North Carolina. [Can a person be a slave if their owner is "unknown"?].

The 1860 census has several bondpersons listed in Wilmington, North Carolina, including "A Mute Slave."

Searching "slave" as a first name and separately as a surname yields a treasure trove of results other than federal census records. There are state census records. And moreover, there are birth, death, and even marriage records for slaves in a number of states. Many of these records name slaves. And they reveal much about the social brutality of slavery. Search for the word "slave" as a surname in the Ancestry.com database "Rockingham County, Virginia Births, 1853-1857," and you'll see what I mean.

Searching for the word "slave" as a name also results in quite a few immigration and passenger records for African-Americans prior to 1860. For example, on 12 June 1820, Michel Allain arrived at the Port of New Orleans from Cuba with "his slave, a black man named Louis," according to Ancestry.com's New Orleans Passenger Lists, 1820-1945.

Tina Turner's Great-Grandfather was a Slave, But What's Slav Got to Do With It?

One thing to be careful about is that "Slave" may in fact be a legitimate surname or at least a transcription of a legitimate surname. It appears that a number of people from the Baltics and other eastern European states were either named or referred to as "Slave." So you can be sure that Slave Dimitriss who arrived in New York on 21 April 1910 from Southampton was not a former African bondman. But records can be tricky. How can you with great confidence tell a slave from a Slav?

First, look at the geographical area to which the record refers. Slaves tend to be found in the South; Slavs, not so much. Slavs generally are found in northern cities; Slaves, not so much. Then look to the time period. Slaves are generally so referred to prior to 1865; Slavs generally later than that. Look at first names as a clue. If there is a place of birth or race listed in your record, that's a clear giveaway.

Of course, for every rule, there is the ambiguous case. So for example, what's up with 18 year-old Ellen L. Slave of Waterbury, Connecticut, enumerated on the 1860 census of New Haven County, Connecticut? Answer: we could take a guess, but we really don't know without more. Or how about the "Slaves" of Edmonson County, Kentucky on the 1860 census? Well, this is probably just a transcription error.

"Slave" also turns up as a surname from the United Kingdom, especially Ireland and Scotland.

Other Searches

Other non-standard searches to find African-Americans include searching the word "Negro" as a first name or surname or the word "colored" as a first name or surname. These searches yield information that when combined with other information may help identify pre-1870 African-American ancestors. For example, a search on the word "colored" results in over 100 records in Ancestry.com's St Louis City Death Records.


The Last Word

We've seen that it is not true that slaves did not appear by name in the census until 1870. We've also learned that a number of records can be accessed by racial description in a name search. That, of course, is because of the way records were kept in a different era. And speaking of racial descriptions in a different era, some of you may be wondering the same thing I was wondering. I'll get to that in the next post.

Trying Again Pays Off Again: Updating "The French Negroes of Illinois"

Last year, I did a major series on the so-called "French Negroes of Illinois," focusing on the Micheau family of Prairie du Rocher, Illinois. In that series, I traced the origins of the French Negroes of Illinois from slaves brought from Haiti by Pierre Renault, who was seeking silver and gold.

Also in that series, I recounted the story told by George Micheau (1852-1942) in a letter of how his family escaped from slavery in 1864. The family had been held by one John Highly of Washington County, Missouri.

Yesterday, my research into this family took a dramatic turn.

I was following my admonition to re-examine areas that one has explored before. I was checking various websites for the several permutations of "Micheau." I was on the Washington County (Mo.) Genealogical Web Page when I spotted a link there that I had not seen before. It was a link to a page about the African-American history of Washington and Iron Counties, Missouri. That page had a list of slave emancipations. To my surprise, among these was George "Misho"
who later moved his family to Randolph County, Illinois! This would be George Micheau, Sr. (1812-?), father of the George who wrote the letter described above. See here and here.

Well! Well? Well . . . .

According to the website, Washington County court records show that in 1846 George Micheau, Sr., was given a license to live as a free man in Missouri upon the posting of a bond secured by one Steven D. Mullowny. In 1850, the census shows him living with a white couple, Garland and Clarissa Nuckols. The 1850 slave schedule also shows that Garland Nuckols of Washington County owned two slaves: an 18 year old girl and a 1 year old girl.

One must wonder if the two slaves might be the wife and child of George Micheau. The young woman seems to match the age of George's [later] wife, Margret. Perhaps he was living in the Nuckols household to be near them and ultimately purchase their freedom. No record has been found showing that George and Margret had a female child. The 1870 census shows them with six sons.

So wait a minute . . .

If George Micheau was a free man in 1846 (and as late as 1850), how is it that he was a slave in 1852 [George, Jr., was born in 1852 and his letter suggests he was born into slavery] or in 1864 when his family escaped from John Highly? And just who are Steven D. Mullowny and Garland and Clarissa Nuckols?

There are some possible explanations for this apparent discrepancy. But first, we need more information. Next step: get the original documents from the Washington County court.

Obviously, there's more to be known about the Micheaus. Once again, looking again has paid off again.